1st Generation Pioneer

Present all across India and in many parts of the world, these ants are native to tropical Asia.

Nests are more commonly located outdoors and there are often additional nests in close proximity. These new nests are created by the process of budding, where a selection of male and female ants leave the original nest and start a new colony.

Nests can be found in trees, shrubs or anywhere that will accommodate a group of ants including brick voids and behind fascias.

Behaviour
These social ants are known to create incredibly large colonies that have a range of queens. Their reproduction potential is phenomenal due to the multiple fertile members of the colony. Some colony sizes are estimated at tens, even hundreds of thousands.

The White-Footed Ant is not a biting insect and primarily exists on sugary foods, particularly honeydew and occasionally proteins. Workers from this trailing species are very prevalent when foraging, as they can exist in large numbers.

Risks
Seen more as a nuisance rather than a pest, these ants are troublesome because of their large colonies and constant foraging in kitchens, bathrooms and the exteriors of buildings.

Agricultural and crop damage is often worse in the presence of White-footed ants as they protect aphids and other bugs in order to feast on their sweet secretions. Protecting these bugs, allows them to destroy the plants they inhabit.

The larvae are dirty white or may be tinged brown or have purple spots.
It has a cosmopolitan distribution and has spread throughout the world by travelling on imported stored food produce.

A tropical or subtropical species which is frequently located on imported cargoes. It is common in food production warehouses, particularly dried fruits, chocolate and cereal, where the larvae develop by chewing and feeding on produce.

Behaviour
Commonly also referred to as the Almond moth or Dried Currant Moth, it is typically found in dried fruit and nuts, although it will attack cereals, oil seeds and chocolate products.

Egg laying commences within 24 days of the adults emergence and up to 350 eggs are laid during the first 4 days. Where temperatures are low the moth overwinters as larvae.

It’s the larvae that damage produce; the adults do not feed and have a short lifespan.

Risks
Moth Larvae cause considerable damage to stored goods by chewing, feeding and contaminating with webbing and frass.
Adult insects are not responsible for damage as they either feed on liquid food and water or do not feed at all.

Termites are social insects, working and living together in groups called colony. Each colony contains several types termite individuals (castes) which differ in body shape and behaviour and each caste performs different tasks. These castes are identified as:

• Workers
• Soldiers – distinguished by their heavily armoured and pigmented heads
• Reproductives (i.e. Queen and King)

Subterranean termites are the most destructive termites in India. They build their nests underground and can also construct mounds that go above ground level. Mature colonies may consist of more than 2 million individuals and the queens are capable of laying 2000 eggs per day. Termite colonies may exist for as long as 50 years

The Worker Caste dominate the colony population, they are wingless, sterile and blind. Their primary role is to build the nest, tend the eggs and young, and gather the food. They also feed other castes incapable of feeding themselves.

The Soldier Caste is also wingless, sterile and blind. Their primary function is protection of the colony from natural enemies and their mandibles are so modified that they cannot feed themselves.

The Reproductive Caste has eyes, a functional reproductive system and wings. They usually swarm (leave the colony) before the onset of monsoon. After swarming (also called as mating flight), they seek out a suitable place to form a new colony. The king alters little in shape but the queen’s abdomen becomes enormously distended with eggs.

Risks
Termites are hidden invaders, they can cause serious structural damage to buildings and significant damage to crops. Termites feed on anything consisting of cellulose such as wood, paper, clothes. In search of food they also damage non-cellulosic material such as rubber, plastic, nylon, etc. Their ability to conceal themselves provides the necessary time to do considerable damage before they are discovered.

Within each group, some species are considered as primary pests, they attack the whole grain, while others follow the initial damage as secondary pests. Losses can amount to 10% or more of the commodity through spoilage or secondary fungal infection.

Understanding Primary and Secondary Pests
Primary coleopteran pests include grain weevils (Sitophilus granarius, S. zeamais, S. oryzae), the lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica) and the saw-toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis)

Secondary beetle pests include the flour beetles (Tribolium castaneum and T.confusum)

The main lepidopteran pests are secondary; they feed regularly on processed foods so are more common in domestic kitchens and larders.

A variety of pests infest stored grain. This may occur in succession – primary then secondary. Eggs are laid in the grain or part-processed food (flour, bran etc.) where the larvae feed through to the pupal stage.

Moth larvae usually fly to a hidden site away from the food source to pupate, adults then mate and eggs are deposited on or in suitable food.

Emerging beetle adults feed on grain or find shelter in the structure of the silo/warehouse prior to invading new food sources.

Risk:

Stored grain pests attack cereals, pulses, oil seeds, spices, copra, tobacco, cocoa, flour and oilseed extractions during storage. They damage the food and make it unfit for consumption. They also attack and damage processed and packaged food.

Control Options

Logistical
Cool temperatures (10°C) reduce the rate of reproduction. While low humidity and ventilation reduce insect activity and viability, they also suppress fungal development.

Pheromone traps aid species control, notably moths, and indicate if and when to treat. Egg to adulthood may take weeks or months, so an infestation is not instantly apparent.

Chemical
Treat empty grain stores between batches of grain to prevent infestations. Treat grain with a residual insecticide at the point of entry into the silo.

Admixture means active ingredient is not subject to photo degradation, while microbial activity in the grain is low, favouring long residual protection.

Fumigation (e.g. in ship holds) with methyl bromide was popular (no residual action but effective control)

Varying in size by species, these insects are on average 1.7-4mm in length and have a dull-brown/red body with golden hairs. The Hump Spider beetle is different and has a shiny, red-brown to black body with no hairs.

Spider Beetles have 11 segmented antennae and all share a number of spider-like characteristics including a stout body, long legs and generally, a hairy appearance.

Behaviour:
Gregarious and nocturnal, Spider Beetles spend the day in cracks and crevices amongst packaging and the fabric of a building. They thrive in old buildings where they find safe harbourages.

Spider beetle larvae infest all types of dry animal and vegetable matter including grain, spices and fish meal. They will scavenge on debris and bore holes in order to find a safe place to pupate. In doing so, they destroy packaging and contaminate foods.

There are 2-4 generations per year in unheated conditions. All stages except eggs and young larvae can overwinter. Peak activity is reached between August and November.

Region:
The Australian Spider Beetle is Australasian in origin and now is widely distributed. Most spider beetle species are cosmopolitan and are rarely imported.

Habitat:
They enjoy dark and damp conditions and readily feed on moisture-damaged food. Infestations often originate from birds’ nests. Spider beetles are becoming increasingly common in domestic premises where they are found in attics, wall cavities and floorboard cracks.

Granaries and bakeries also offer the perfect conditions and food sources. Hump Spider beetles are tolerant of cool conditions and can survive for long periods without food supplies.

Risks:
Spider beetles can reduce the quality of commodities by contaminating them with webbing and droppings. The larvae bore into packaging and the grain itself, in addition to other materials such as grain sacks, leaving behind tell-tale holes.

Smaller spiders’ average length is 4-8mm. Males are smaller than females. Unlike insects, spiders only have 2 distinct body sections, the Cephalothorax, which is the head and thorax combined; it features fangs, pedipalps, multiple eyes and legs, and the abdomen which contains the spinnerets at the rear, which are sophisticated glands that spin the silken webs.

There are many spider species present all across India.

Most species prefer to live outdoors and feast on insects. Generally, spiders indoors are males hunting for females. Sometimes, spiders come inside for warmth if the temperature drops outside.

Behaviour
Most spiders are harmless and play an important role in controlling the insect population. Spiders emit silk, ejecting a liquid which turns to silk when it meets the air.

Autumn is breeding season. Female spiders plump up to attract a male. The spider’s mating ritual is complex. Males must avoid getting eaten by the female and start by creating a web bed to lay sperm. They pick up the sperm in pedipalps by the mouth and inseminate the female. Some males dazzle the female to stop her reacting aggressively.

Spiders use venom to paralyse their prey and eat at leisure. Some species venom is deadly.

Risks
Spiders are typically a nuisance rather than harmful. They reproduce quickly and create cobwebs in hard to reach areas.
Most species use their venom on invertebrates rather than humans.

Most spiders are harmless and the bites cause localised pain, redness and swelling. Humans can have allergic reactions which includes feelings of nausea, dizziness and in extreme cases, necrosis.

Their long antennae are used in the mating dance and the cerci which are 3 large appendages that protrude from the rear, are used to detect predators.

Found throughout India
Silverfish come into buildings in search of dark, damp areas and thrive in high humidity. They are commonly found in crevices and like gaps or cracks in buildings.

Behaviour
Silverfish are nocturnal and secretive insects that are difficult to spot making it easy for an infestation to occur. They have destructive feeding habits and will feed on an unusual diet which includes paper and glue, making wallpaper and books key targets. Unlike other insects, silverfish do not go through a metamorphosis, going straight from an egg to a nymph.

Risks
Silverfish can be very destructive and often go unnoticed until their feeding damage is identified. They can ruin carpets, furnishings and linen, in addition to paper and spoiling foodstuffs.

They ingest an incredibly wide variety of foods including cellulose, so can spoil shampoo and other beauty products.

Their faeces and excretions leave yellow staining.

As per the name Roof Rats are expert climbers and are usually black to light brown in colour with a lighter underside. The tail is longer than their body, they have poor eye sight, but they make-up for this with their keen sense of hearing, smell, taste and touch.

Roof Rats originated from India and Eastern Africa and can now be found worldwide.

They are often found outdoors and tend to live in fields and farmlands. They will also climb into buildings and structures when food sources are no longer readily available.

Behaviour
Roof Rats have incisors that grow at a rate of 4 inches per year. Rats control their incisor teeth by continuously chewing, which can result in extensive damage. They will chew on anything that comes in their path causing considerable destruction.
They also urinate and produce droppings frequently; contaminating everything they come into contact with. Roof rats are quickly able to detect and avoid new objects placed in the familiar environment.

Risks
Carriers of over 45 types of diseases, Roof Rats contaminate water, food and the environment. In nursing homes they are also known to eat away body parts of small children in India. Rats cause direct food losses to field crops and stored food and food production chains, as well as indirect food losses, such as packaging destruction and contamination with faeces.

They very well fit in the definition of a pest by causing damage to human health, food and property and are also nuisance.
Rats are known vectors of many human diseases such as plague, leptospirosis, typhoid, salmonellosis, etc. Rodents harbour serious livestock diseases including several bacteria and viruses.

Cleanliness is the key to control
Thoroughly inspect the area to determine the extent of infestation and the type of rodent.

Control starts with good sanitation. Eliminate access to food and remove rubbish or clutter which rodents use as breeding or hiding places. Rodent-proofing of the premises by sealing up areas where they can enter the building helps to a great extent.

Traps can also be used for smaller populations but are less effective for large populations.

Achieve efficient rodent control
Rodenticide baits placed strategically where rats roam and seek food offer efficient control. Today’s rodenticides are anti-coagulants, causing death by inhibiting blood coagulation. This process takes several days.

Anti-coagulants treatments fall into two categories:

• Single dose
• Multi-dose

For single dose, rodents consume a lethal dose in a single feed, whereas for multi-dose, rodents must feed on the baits for several days before accumulating a lethal dose.

The advantage of multi-dose is a significantly reduced risk of secondary poisoning of non-target species and restrict the ability of rodents to associate the bait with hazard.

The larvae are dull, yellowish/white body and a dark brown head. They have long fine hairs that cover their body.

A native of the tropics, it now has a widespread distribution and is imported in foodstuffs.

This tropical species typically enjoys a warm climate but in temperate areas it can survive all year in heated stores. It is a major pest of stored foods and favours grains, particularly rice. They are common in flour mills but can be seen in all types of stored food areas.

Behaviour
This moth attacks grains, especially rice, but will also eat oil seeds, cocoa beans, dried fruit and spices.

It lays up to 160 eggs on or near a food source. The larval stage lasts 15-20 days in favourable conditions and the larvae will produce masses of strong webbing which it uses to form a dense cocoon in order to pupate. This stage will last 7-10 days.

Risks
Rice moth larvae contaminate food by producing large amounts of strong webbing and frass. This can bind food together and make foods unsuitable for sale or consumption.

Frass from the rice moth can also attract other stored food pests and increase the damage and contamination of the product.

Widely distributed across Australia, they need warm, humid conditions which mean that in temperate lands they are confined to buildings and often found infesting hospitals.

Infestations are discovered in a wide variety of locations including residential blocks, hotels, hospitals, zoos and on board ships. In warmer climates, infestations can even be found outside.

The insects locate themselves in the fabric of buildings (wall voids, windows etc.) or in plants and sterile supplies. They can spread through service ducts (e.g. heating and electrical conduits). The ants forage for water around sinks and areas of condensation.

Ants forage for meat, cheese, fat, sugar, honey, jam etc. In hospital, they will feed on blood and intravenous diet fluids. Dead insects, mice and droppings can also provide a food source.

Behaviour
There are several queens in one nest (polygenic). Winged Pharaoh ants do not fly. The queens are interchangeable, so colonies survive indefinitely. Disturb, rather than destroy the nest, and there is a strong likelihood that you will encourage a new colony.

These social insects live in colonies from a few dozen to 300,000 ants. The ants can survive low temperatures for prolonged periods where the workers continue to forage for food.

Risks
Materials are often damaged by the ant’s constant chewing with their strong mandibles. They can even penetrate the plastic bags containing sterile dressings and instruments.

Pharaoh ants pose a risk to health as pathogenic organisms can be transmitted when the ants feed in unhygienic places including drains, bins or even wound dressings.

It prefers humid, dark and concealed harbourages, such as cellars, ducting and other underground parts of buildings. Deceptively, the harbourage may be located outside an infested area, being reached by the cockroach through under-floor cavities, ducting or drains.

It is most commonly found around the ground-floor of buildings, although sometimes it can be discovered on higher levels.

It is known for its love of water and in a building, can be located in sewers, drains, basements, cellars, under sinks, baths or washing machines.

Behaviour
Like the German cockroach, the main period of activity is early in the evening but unlike this species it is not a similarly accomplished climber, which means it is more commonly located at ground level.

The female lays her eggs in capsules called ootheca, the life cycle can be lengthy with the nymph stage lasting from 6-12 months.

This species will feed on any type of decaying organic matter, including garbage, carrying the bacteria with them on every surface that they traverse.

Risks
In the course of their foraging activity, the nymphs, larvae and adults can contaminate and infect foodstuffs. They secrete an odorous discharge from their body which also taints and contaminates food.

Like other cockroach species, the Oriental Cockroaches transmit bacteria as they walk, transferring pathogens such as salmonella and e.coli to every area they scurry across.

Cockroaches also shed cuticles, faeces and other cockroach debris which are known asthma and allergy triggers.

They are sometimes confused with the Argentine ants but differ in colour and odour when crushed.

A native Australian species, they are now widely distributed across all states.

They can build their nests outside under stones but can also be found in wall cavities, they often only come indoors in search of a water source.

Behaviour

Typically omnivores, they can eat proteins and will occasionally eat sugars from natural sources, particularly for the moisture component. This species can be aggressive and are excellent scavengers.

Risks

More of a nuisance than a pest, they can create large colonies in the soil which can displace turf and destabilize paving.

If needed however, pesticides used for general insect control are also useful for managing these pests. Some examples of these pests include.

• Siverfish
• Millipedes
• Psocids/ Booklice
• Clothes Moths
• Plaster bagworms
• Phorid flies
• Dog ticks

Mosquitoes not only cause nuisance by their bites but also transmit serious human diseases like:

• Malaria
• Dengue
• Chikungunya
• Filariasis
• Japanese Encephalitis, etc.

Control measures are directed towards the larvae or adults. Adult mosquitoes are controlled by using aerosol, repellents, treated bed nets, mosquito coils etc. at individual household level. However, effective management of mosquitoes can only be achieved by Integrated Vector Management (IVM).

IVM involves minimizing larval breeding sites by sealing drains, removing receptacles that accumulate water and ensuring that water does not stagnate near the building. Where these physical measures are not possible, larvicides are applied regularly to keep check on the development of mosquito larvae into adult stage.

To control adult mosquitoes that enter the houses or commercial premises, use of indoor residual sprays (IRS) is done by spraying on the walls. Alternatively, space sprays such as thermal fogging or ULV applications can also be done to rapidly reduce adult mosquito populations indoors or outdoors.

Females of most mosquito species look for pools of stagnant water, ponds or any receptacle that holds water to lay eggs. Eggs are laid individually or stuck together as rafts on or near the water’s edge. Larvae need oxygen from the atmosphere and therefore they come to the surface of water and exchange oxygen through the siphon or breathing tube.

Size of the breathing tube of different mosquito species is different. This creates variation in the angle between the body and water surface making it a useful tool for identification of different larvae like, Cluex, Anopheles and Aedes species.

Behaviour
Larvae feed on organic material and a selection of aquatic organisms

Dust mites may cause allergic reactions due to their excrement which would enter the respiratory system and unless their presence is identified, the it would be difficult to control.

Region:

A cosmopolitan species, it is believed to be a native of sub-Saharan Africa but is now readily found across the world.

Habitat:

In temperate climates, they are typically found indoors although, being reasonably cold tolerant, they will survive in unheated buildings.

The Lesser Mealworm beetle is widely distributed in animal houses and especially poultry houses where the conditions reflect those of its tropical origin.

Behaviour:

Lesser Mealworm Beetles are associated with a variety of stored products. This pest favours humidity and warmth and is most prevalent in environments that offer a combination of both.

They eat an extensive variety of foods from carrion to insects and fungus to grain. These nocturnal creatures can lay 100s of eggs in a lifetime, which it lays on a food source for the larvae to thrive.

Risks:

Known vectors of diseases, particularly poultry diseases, they present a significant threat to poultry houses where they transmit Marek’s disease, and Newcastle disease, amongst others.

Lesser Mealworm beetles infest a range of stored products including cereals, farinaceous products, oilseeds, groundnuts and bones but are not regarded as major pests in this area as they select grains that have been previously damaged by for e.g., moulds.

Their presence is an indication of poor hygiene. Infestations in animal houses are often introduced by way of contaminated feed.

When looking for a suitable pupation site, the larvae chew holes in a wide variety of materials from building insulations through to timbers, causing destruction.

The Lesser Grain Borer originated in South America but is now a cosmopolitan pest especially in warmer countries.
It is not cold hardy pest and development is limited at temperatures less than 23°C. Infestations are typically in grain stores including ships holds, flour mills and animal feed mills. They have also been recorded in woods and books.

Behaviour

In India, it is a serious pest of grains. Grain borers are associated with a wide variety of vegetable materials including wheat, barley, maize, rice, millet, sorghum, dried potatoes, dried herbs and biscuits.

The female lays single or multiple eggs on the outside of the grain but the egg goes through its developmental phases in the hollowed core of the grain.

An infestation is characterized by a sweet yet unpleasant, musty smell from excretions and shed skin.

Risks

Lesser grain borers are primary pests of grain and can attack undamaged grain, rendering it susceptible to attack by secondary pests.

Both the adults and larvae feed on the grain creating a floury dust and potentially, leaving little behind except for the empty husks.
The adults are active and may infest a large number of kernels whilst the larvae penetrate kernels and develop within the grain.

They significantly reduce the market value of stored grain.

A native of America, the Indiameal Moth is now a cosmopolitan species.

It is the most common pest of stored products in household and grocery stores. Usually feed on grain products, seeds, dried fruit, dog food, spices, etc. One generation is usually produced but in warm conditions, adults will be present throughout the year and may produce 4-6 generations.

Behaviour
Most active from dusk until dawn, it rests during the day. This species is a particular pest of flour mills.

Mating takes place immediately after the adults emerge. Up to 350 eggs are laid and these may be stuck to various foods by a sticky secretion. The eggs hatch in 4-28days and the larvae spin silken tubes in which they live. After 3-5 moults the larvae are fully grown and 15-19mm long.

Risks
Larvae present a more serious problem, as it is their feeding and excretions that contaminate the produce. The adults do not feed.

The larvae produce copious amounts of silk which contaminates grains but this larval webbing also causes serious blockages in provender mills. The larvae eat holes in sifting silks and may also reach mill’s finished products.

The webbing may also cause condensation which leads to damaging molds.

The House mouse originated from East-Asia and has spread throughout the world in distributed grain and food.

Mice tend to live in grassy or bushy areas, making their nests in shallow burrows but can also be found above ground nesting in densely vegetated spaces. Outdoors they can be found in leaf piles or wood piles, even a stack of bricks can provide the right shelter.

When the weather turns colder they come indoors in search of warmth. They will live close to a source of food and destroy materials in the vicinity to build a nest.

Behaviour
Outdoors they will breed throughout the summer only and indoors they will breed continuously. Mice never move too far from their nest, and always use the same route when travelling to and from it, preferring to navigate around the edge of a room. Grease build-up in their fur, from urine and dust, creates smear marks which can be evident.

Risks
Mice are practically incontinent and urinate frequently. As a result, a mice infestation is normally recognized by distinct musty smell of their urine. They contaminate all surfaces that they scurry across with urine and faeces. They can produce up to 80 droppings a day.

Commercially, they cause direct food losses to field crops and stored food and food production chains, as well as indirect food losses, such as packaging destruction.

Risk:

House flies do not discriminate between food and filth. They feed on human food and garbage and breeds in human waste or cattle manure. They are carriers of large number of disease causing germs/ pathogens of humans and animals. Flies are known for transmission of several enteric infections such as dysentery, diarrhea, typhoid, food poisoning, cholera and parasitic worms.

Behaviour:

House flies are active only in daytime and rest at night. House flies cannot feed on solid food and therefore take up the liquid or semi-liquid substance which has been softened by saliva or vomit. Because of their frequent intake of food, they deposit feces constantly.

Where to find them?

Indoors, house flies can be seen resting at shaded locations e.g. corners of rooms, walls, hanging electrical wires, ropes, ceiling hangings, inside cattle sheds, etc. whereas outdoors they are found to rest on plants, grounds, trash cans, near garbage dumps, etc.

Risks

Most feared for the painful attack launched when threatened, the RIFA has a persistent sting that leaves a white pustule. Even though they bite, it’s the venom of the sting that causes the residual pain and pustule.

Under attack, they emit pheromones which prompt other members of the colony to launch a synchronized attack. A multiple attack is incredibly painful and some victims can suffer an allergic reaction.

The mounds can also be a nuisance, disrupting root growth and disturbing plant formation which can result in lower yield crops and patchy turf growth.

Each of these species varies considerably in size but has a distinctive elongated snout which is adapted to the size of its preferred grain. Typically, they reach 2-4mm in length and have a long cylindrical body which is dark brown or nearly black in colour.

Grain weevils are encountered in all temperate and warm-temperate climates. They are widely distributed around Europe. Both adults and larvae are cold-hardy.
Rice and Maize weevils are widely distributed in tropical and sub-tropical areas and will be carried to temperate areas on imported commodities.
The maize weevil breeds on maize in the field but the Rice weevil only breeds in stored grain. Both insects will not normally overwinter in unheated premises or grain stored at normal temperatures.

Behaviour
Grain weevils do not fly but instead, infestations often occur after being imported in grain and cereal products, also from the fabric of vehicles used to transport grain or buildings to store it.
The female will lay a single egg inside the grain, where larva and pupa stages will occur, once developed, the weevil bores its way out leaving a hole in the grain.

The Grain weevil can only breed in grain with moisture content of more than 9.5% and at temperature within the range 13-35C.

Risks
Grain weevils are primary grain pests, infesting undamaged grain and attacking other hard cereal products such as macaroni and spaghetti. Weevil-damaged grain is readily recognised by the presence of large holes which are the exit holes of the emerging adults.

Both the adults and the larvae feed on the grain causing holes and also contamination with their excretions. Grain quality and marketability is reduced.

Just visible to the naked eye, these mites reach 0.5mm in length and can be seen moving slowly on the surface of grain or associated produce. Grain mites are commonly a pale, grey to white colour.

Larvae have 6 legs and they increase to 8 legs during the nymph to adult stage.

Have a wide distribution, especially in warmer climates. However, they can be found in warm grain stores worldwide.

They thrive in warm, moist conditions and prefer humidity levels of 80% with an optimum temperature of 20oC. These mites will survive colder conditions but will die without moisture.

Behaviour

Both species require a high moisture habitat and are common in food processing where stored produce is kept at a high humidity level, which also results in fungal growth.

A female will lay hundreds of eggs during the course of her lifecycle. Eggs are laid daily and are distributed singly or scattered across the surface of the grain. Egg to adulthood is a short phase so an infestation can take hold quickly.

These mites have a unique phase in the lifecycle called the hypopus, this is a nymphal resting stage, where the young mites don’t feed and are more resistant to control measures.

Risks
The Grain Mite feeds on a wide variety of products, cereals, dried vegetable materials and dried fruits.

Mite populations in grain stores can build up very quickly. They have a preference for feeding on the cereal germ and contaminate grain with allergens that adversely affect its palatability. They also feed on mould and spread fungal spores, further damaging the grain.

Found all across the world, they are one of the most widely distributed ant species.

Ghost Ants tend to prefer warmer, wet habitats. Colonies are generally located outside but there are also colonies that set up home inside. Indoor Ghost Ants select their habitats based on their preference for warmth and high moisture requirements. Their trails often lead to sinks, baths, toilets and showers.

The nests are frequently located within wall voids, behind skirting boards, or in potted plant soil. Workers run rapidly and erratically, trailing along edges and corners.

Behaviour
It’s an invasive species that forages for all kinds of nutrients and will live on grease and other insects but favours sweet foods. Ghost ants have polygene colonies (multiple queens in a single colony) with individual nests containing between 100-1000 workers. One colony may consist of several nests which readily exchange workers.

Risks
This ant’s love of sugary substances attracts them to the sweet secretions of aphids, which they protect and in doing so, allow the aphids to continue to destroy the plants they inhabit.

Indoors, they contaminate household foods by attacking any sugary items such as cakes, chocolate, sugar etc…

Originating from tropical Africa, the German cockroach now has a world-wide distribution.

It prefers a warm, humid, dark and well hidden environment and is found more often in sewers. It is typically also found in drains, ducts, in other underground structures, and in boats.

As it feeds on a large variety of foodstuffs, it is also commonly discovered wherever food is stored and prepared. Although the main harbourages are outdoors, this cockroach will forage into the inhabited parts of buildings along ducts, services and crevices.

Behaviour
It moves with speed and equally well on both horizontal and vertical surfaces. Typically, it is faster than other cockroach species.

They tend to more successfully inhabit buildings over other species. There are a number of factors which contribute to this. A shorter life cycle, coupled with an ability to constantly reproduce, accelerates population growth. German cockroaches are also faster and smaller than other species making detection even harder.

Risks
In the course of their foraging activity, the nymphs, larvae and adults can contaminate and infect foodstuffs. They secrete an odorous discharge from their body which also taints and contaminates food.

Like other cockroach species, the German Cockroach transmits bacteria as they walk, transferring pathogens such as salmonella and e.coli to every area they scurry across.

Cockroaches also shed cuticles, faeces and other cockroach debris which are known asthma and allergy triggers.

They are cosmopolitan insects and found readily all across the world.

Serious pests of cereal products, including grain, flour, porridge oats and rice bran. Flour beetles are most commonly encountered in bakeries, flour mills and other agricultural stored grain areas.

Other products which may be attacked are oil seed, oil cake, nuts, dried fruit, spices, chocolate – even bones and other animal products.

Behaviour
The beetle lays its eggs in damaged grain and are prolific reproducers, laying 100s of eggs in a breeding season. They are not cold hardy, so only overwinter under warm conditions.

They reside in the smallest of crevices, and are a particular problem in machinery where cereal and other food residues accumulate.

Risks

Flour beetles are a secondary grain pest and increase the feeding damage done by primary pests. When present in large numbers, flour beetles:

Make flour prone to moulding and will also turn the product grey.
Taint commodities with secretions from scent glands.

Some flies are associated with filth and hence their presence is very embarrassing to the home owner. Flies hovering around can cause annoyance to anyone; they can be intensely irritating when they settle in swarms on man and beast and may result in production loss in any labour intensive industry.

Few species of flies are also known to bite and spread diseases to human and domestic animals, whereas yet another would simply multiply in fruits or decomposing animal carcasses.

Some important category of flies include

• Filth flies or housefly and its relatives (Muscidae)
• Flesh flies (Sarcophagidae)
• Bottle flies and blowflies (Calliphoridae)
• Black flies (Simuliidae)
• Horseflies and deer flies (Tabanidae)
• Fruit flies (Drosophilidae)

1. Ctenocephalides felis (cat flea)
2. Ctenocephalides canis (dog flea)
3. Pulex irritans (Human flea)
4. Spilopsyllus cuniculi (rabbit flea)
5. Xenopsylla cheopis (tropical rat flea)
6. Archaeopsyllus erinacei (hedgehog flea)
7. Ceratophyllus gallinae (bird flea)
8. Hystrichopsylla talpae (mole flea).

Description
Adults are 1-8mm in length; brownish in colour. The larvae require precise conditions which are associated with the habitats and nesting habits of the hosts rather than the characteristics of their blood. Fleas are laterally flattened (side to side), making it easier to navigate through hair and fur.

Fleas are prevalent all around the world.

Fleas are most commonly found on mammals, although birds may also be attacked. They show a certain degree of host preference, but are by no means host specific and will feed on other animals in the absence of the normal host.

Behaviour
Adult fleas live exclusively as parasites of warm blooded animals. They will feed on many animals. Fleas don’t have wings but are the most impressive jumpers in the insect world. Moving from host to host by taking impressive leaps, they reach up to 100-150 times their own height. That’s 18cm vertically and 33cm horizontally.

The eggs often drop to the ground from the host and inhabit carpets and other surfaces where they find organic matter and other debris to feed from.

Risks
Once a flea finds a host, it is reluctant to leave. Each species has the ability to cause problems for humans and animals.

As vectors, they transmit diseases such as murine typhus and tapeworm. Their saliva contains allergens that can trigger reactions in both animals and humans. Bites are generally harmless but cause inflammation, itching and a puncture wound that leads to secondary infections and hair loss when victims scratch the wounds. A large infestation causes an anaemia that can kill small animals.

Native to the Americas, it is now very active in Queensland’s pine growing regions in Australia.

Stressed pine trees are a particular favourite habitat but this beetle will also enjoy living in tree stumps, rotting trees or recently felled timber.

Behaviour
Adults are often prevalent in stressed or damaged pine trees but they mainly attack the stumps or roots of dead trees and can severely affect the value and aesthetic qualities of milled timber.

The males bore into the tree and emit a powerful pheromone which attracts other beetles to the site. At this point, the male will take 3-5 female partners and impregnate them. The females bore further into the tree and lay eggs.

In the case of stressed pines, their defences are overwhelmed by the sheer volume of invading beetles and they die.
The Five Spined Bark Beetle also carries spores of blue stain fungi which it transmits to the tree and makes their presence easier to detect.

Risks
This beetle often attacks already weakened trees and as a result can kill a large number in a relatively small area.

The blue stain fungi can ruin the aesthetics of milled timber, severely affecting its value and usability.

A native of South America, the RIFA is also found in India and pose a threat to the environment.

Typically, they build their nest underground in mounds. The mounds are found in lawns or disrupting turf and have no obvious opening at the top. The RIFA is often discovered when someone inadvertently steps on a mound and they launch an attack.

Behaviour
Often congregating in massive colonies, this pest is small but incredibly aggressive and considered one of the most hostile of all ant species. Under threat of attack, they will launch a coordinated attack on their victim.

Colonies can have single or multiple queens and they can reproduce at a very fast rate. Their diet is generally organic matter but they will also invade the home looking for sweet products or other protein-rich foods.

Risks
Most feared for the painful attack launched when threatened, the RIFA has a persistent sting that leaves a white pustule. Even though they bite, it’s the venom of the sting that causes the residual pain and pustule.

Under attack, they emit pheromones which prompt other members of the colony to launch a synchronized attack. A multiple attack is incredibly painful and some victims can suffer an allergic reaction.

The mounds can also be a nuisance, disrupting root growth and disturbing plant formation which can result in lower yield crops and patchy turf growth.

They are originally thought to be natives of Europe and Asia but are now prevalent all across the world.

These beetles are scavengers and associated in nature with carcasses and bird’s nests. They are often wide-spread in manufacturing and storage premises handling animal products, intensive poultry units, piggeries and domestic premises.

Where the sources of infestation are not immediately obvious e.g. domestic or catering premises, attention should be paid to food stores and spillages, or the presence of dead rodents, birds in attics, under floor spaces.

Behaviour
Typically associated with materials with high protein content, for example hides, skins, feathers, bones, dried meat, fish meal and dog biscuits. Large populations can be encountered, especially where hygiene is poor. An infestation is often an indicator of a dead carcass in the vicinity. Although they eat any animal protein, they sometimes eat vegetable protein too.

Risks
Heavily infested poultry manure that is spread onto fields leads to infestations of nearby properties.

Hairs dislodged from the larvae are known skin irritants. Conjunctivitis is common in people exposed to the insects.

Adults and larvae require a high protein diet and the beetles can be serious pests in hide warehouses, tanneries, milk-processing plants and other premises where animal products are handled.

Risk:

Mostly nuisance mosquitoes; some Culex spp. are transmitters of serious diseases like filariasis, encephalitis and various arboviral infections that has significant impact on human health.

Behaviour:

Culex mosquitoes are opportunistic feeders and feed on human as well as range of animals depending on availability. Adult mosquitoes have a typical resting posture wherein the fore and middle legs are at the level to the surface and the hind legs are lifted up.

Where to find them?

Culex usually breeds in polluted water masses of all types, e.g. cesspools, open drains, ditches, ponds, stagnant tributaries of rivers, septic tanks, gutters, etc. Adult mosquitoes rest on vegetation around dark places in houses/ buildings, storm water drains present on the road sides.

Cockroaches pose a serious threat to human health. They transmit pathogens and spread allergens. According to WHO studies, cockroaches are also associated with asthma in children. Some common diseases transmitted by cockroaches include:

• Gastroenteritis
• Typhoid
• Dysentery
• Poliomyelitis and other ailments

Identify the invader
Before control measures are taken, assess the infestation. Identify the species and the extent of the infestation.

A high standard of hygiene is important in cockroach control. It denies a cockroach access to food, water and suitable harbourages. Ensure you have a clean environment and survey incoming materials including packaging cartons.

Achieve fast, efficient cockroach control
Effective insecticide treatments include surface sprays and insecticidal baits.

• for surface sprays, apply in and around cockroach harbourages, and along routes where cockroaches typically travel. Most surface sprays are cockroach repellent so shouldn’t be applied in the same location as bait, as they will deter cockroaches feeding on the baits.
• for Insecticidal baits, place small spots of the bait gel should be applied in infested areas. Baits provide control over an extended period of time, less product is required and can be used in sensitive environments (e.g. kitchens, schools, etc).
• for outdoor applications such as along external walls, door and window frames, and around drains, use a contact residual spray such as K-Othrine Flow or Responsar to provide fast knockdown and long-term control.
• for indoor infestations, use a bait Gel (e.g. Maxforce Forte) as it is discrete, highly effective, easy to apply, can eliminate colonies, and has no odour.